Managing Employee Misbehaviour for Promoting Business Ethics

Managing Employee Misbehaviour for Promoting Business Ethics Workplace misbehaviour: Any intentional action by members of organizations that defies and violates Shared organizational norms and expectations, and/or Core societal values, mores and standards of proper conduct (Vardi and Wiener, 1996, p. 153). Misbehaviour in this sense is also said to be about breaching broader, yet far from clearly defined or fully shared societal norms or moral order. In industrial sociology key writers on misbehaviour – Ackroyd and Thompson (1999, p. 2) – borrow Sprouse's (1992, p. 3) definition of sabotage – â€Å"anything you do at work you are not supposed to do† – to define misbehaviour, although questions remain about how useful this definition is. Perspectives on misbehaviour Misbehaviour is also a phenomena discussed in several other academic disciplines. For instance, in gender studies, we see quite a distinct dimension of misbehaviour emerging. Misbehaviour in gender studies tends to concern males defending masculine identities in an organizational context and how masculinity is in reality a crucial, yet often hidden dimension of a broader organizational identity (Collinson and Collinson, 1989; DiTomaso, 1989; Levin, 2001). An account of men trying to preserve the dominance of a masculine identity, sponsored implicitly by senior management, is outlined in the following passage taken from ethnography of a trading floor of a large, American commodities exchange: When the working environment becomes less active, the more overtly sexualized repertoire of joking and getting along emerges. Men and women use jokes to pass time, fit in and relieve tension, but a direct result of men’s sexual banter is to facilitate group solidarity among men to the exclusion of women. Strong heterosexual joking is predicated on men being the sexual agents of jokes and women being the objects (Levin, 2001, p. 126). Further dimensions of gender-related misbehaviour include women subverting dominant masculine identities (Cockburn, 1991; Game and Pringle, 1983; Gutek, 1989; Pollert, 1981), women taking advantage of their sex appeal to get around male supervisors (Pollert, 1981) and female flight attendants feigning responses to lurid comments from male passengers (Hochschild, 2003). Further details of Gutek’s (1989) research highlights the many ways in which sexuality can be the spur for a range of misbehaviour: More common than sexual coercion from either sex are sexual jokes, use of explicit terms to describe work situations, sexual comments to co-workers, and display of sexual posters and pictures engaged in by men at work (Sex and sports, some observers claim, are the two metaphors of business. ) The use of sex can be more subtle than either hostile sexual remarks or sexual jokes. Although this tactic is often assumed to be used exclusively by women, some men, too, may feign sexual interest to gain some work-related advantage (1989, p. 63-64). Commentary on what could be interpreted to be misbehaviour is also a feature of industrial relations research. In industrial relations theorists seem to view misbehaviour as a lesser version of strike action, or action short of strike action (Bean, 1975; Blyton and Turnbull, 2004; Hyman, 1981; Nichols and Armstrong, 1976). From this perspective, misbehaviour is taken to represent the actions of unorganized employees. In effect, misbehaviour is synonymous with a widespread and increasing inability of employees to offer a coherent and organized response to management strategies (Beynon, 1984). As such, industrial relations theorists link misbehaviour to record low levels of strike activity (Hale, 2007). Moreover, some theorists believe acts such as sabotage – in the form of grievance bargaining or deliberate poor workmanship – are intimately bound up in the labour process (Zabala, 1989). Research work in Ethics: 2008 NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ETHICS SURVEY in US: National Government Ethics Survey Shows Employee Misconduct is High Key Findings On all levels of government, there is a lack of programs and incentives to encourage ethical behavior, the report says †¢Six in 10 government employees saw at least one form of misconduct in the last 12 months. †¢One in 4 employees work in an environment conducive to misconduct. According to ERC, this includes strong pressure to compromise standards, a presence of situations which invite wrongdoing, and a culture where employees’ personal values conflict with their values at work. †¢Overall strength of ethical cultures is declining. †¢Almost one-third of employees do not report misconduct. More than one-third of government employees believe government does not demonstrate its values through socially responsible decision-making. Levels of Government Federal Level – The number of incidences of misconduct observed is slightly lower, but reporting is still comparatively low. Only 30 percent of federal government organizations have ethics and compliance p rograms, and only 10 percent have strong ethical cultures. State Level – Workers are most vulnerable to ethical risks as there are more reports of employees who have observed misconduct multiple times. Still 30 percent do not report misconduct to management. Local Level – Employees are the least likely to know the ethical risks since fewer resources are put in place to encourage ethical behavior. Local government organizations have the lowest levels of reporting misconduct, only 67% are reporting. â€Å"In order to encourage high ethical standards within our organizations, we first have to provide an environment that is conducive to ethical behavior,† says Sharon Allen, chairman of the board at Deloitte & Touche. However, management and leadership have a huge responsibility in setting examples for their organizations and living the values they preach if they want to sustain a culture of ethics. † The report, â€Å"2007 Deloitte & Touche USA LLP Ethics & Workplace,† is based on responses from 1,041 U. S. adult workers. Harris Interactive conducted the research in February on behalf of Deloitte & Touche. The top two factors contributing to the promotion of an ethical workplace are the behavior of management and direct supervisors, as chosen by 42% and 36% of respondents, respectively. More surprisingly, emphasis of criminal penalties doesn’t seem to do much to deter unethical behavior, nor does ethics training. There is, however, a strong relationship between ethical actions at work and a healthy level of work-life balance. In fact, 91% of those employees surveyed agreed that workers are more likely to behave ethically at the office when they have a good work-life balance. Allen explains why this may be so. â€Å"If someone invests in all of their time and energy into their jobs, it may have the unintended consequence of making them depend on their jobs for everything – including their sense of personal worth. This makes it even harder to make a good choice when faced with an ethical dilemma if they believe it will impact professional success. † Categories of Employee Misbehaviour: a. Production deviance – includes behaviors that waste time and resources. b. Property deviance – involves either theft or destruction of facility or residents’ property. c. Normative deviance – generally involves talk that hurts or belittles others. d. Personal aggression – mostly involves hitting, fighting, or sexual harassment. Common Employee Misbehaviour: Fighting Theft from the employer or colleagues Fraud or falsifying work documents Accessing and/or distributing pornographic emails or websites Deliberately damaging company property Serious bullying or harassment Bringing the employer into serious disrepute Serious infringement of health and safety rules Serious failure to follow reasonable instructions. Causes of Employee Misbehaviour: Poor Employee selection and orientation procedures Poorly defined employee expectations Poorly understood employee expectations Improperly selected and trained supervisors Incorrect philosophy of discipline Effects of Employee Misbehaviour: oInefficiency oIncreased costs oUnhealthy and unsafe work environment Employee Misbehaviour – To be Punished or leaving it ignored: Handling employee misconduct is a very critical task to be performed by the senior managers. Misconduct and other offensive behaviors often lead to decreased levels of productivity as they affect the individual performance of the employees. To manage discipline among employees, every company opts for a discipline policy which describes the approach it will follow to handle misconduct. When dealing with employee misconduct, companies must keep careful mind of the legislative and common law legal framework that governs the employment relationship. Regard must be made to relevant legislation such as the Employment Standards Act 2000, Ontario Human Rights Code, Workplace Safety and Insurance Act, Occupational Health and Safety Act (reprisal provisions) and to principles such as constructive and wrongful dismissal. To effectively manage the employment relationship and deal with potential misconduct, employers are well advised to develop and maintain reasonable rules of conduct and performance expectations. Communicate these to employees and ensure consistent application and enforcement. Provide appropriate counseling and training to your workforce. Carefully consider each incident of misconduct and the appropriate reaction. Avoid knee jerk instantaneous reactions. These only serve to increase potential employer liability. Management needs to conduct a preliminary investigation. Once the company has completed the investigation, the manager should make the employee aware of the findings. Once again, the manager can ask for the employee's side of the story. Using this evidence, management, with the help of a Human Resources representative, must decide what to do. They must decide how they should discipline the employee or whether they should fire the worker. To conclude, Very surely an action is required quickly if left unattended; misconduct will quickly demoralize the other employees too. While everyone reacts differently, even the top performers are usually going to be the first casualties of demoralization. Dealing with Employee Misbehaviour: The employer must investigate the matter fully (speak to witnesses, collect documentary evidence etc). The employer must also give the employee an opportunity to explain himself. The employee should sufficiently know what the case and evidence is against him before any hearing. Prior warning of the hearing date and that the disciplinary action is under consideration. Give the employee the opportunity to call witnesses. Inform the individual he has the right to be accompanied by a colleague (or a trade union official). Inform the employee he has the right of an appeal. Employee's rights If an employee has been with the employer for over a year they have unfair dismissal protection. Although employees have the right not to be dismissed for an unfair reason, the conduct of an employee is expressly stated to be a potentially fair reason to dismiss. Employees also have the right not to be discriminated against on the grounds of their sex, race or disability. This would include being singled out for a warning about their conduct or receiving harsher penalties than other employees would receive. Employees have the right not to be dismissed in breach of their contractual terms. For example, failure to follow a contractual procedure may result in a claim of breach of contract. Employees are entitled to be dismissed on notice (unless for gross misconduct). Failure to do so entitles the employee to claim damages for breach of contract. This type of claim is also called ‘wrongful dismissal'. Employees should be made aware, either in their contract of employment or in disciplinary procedures what are the likely consequences if they break the guidelines the company has laid down in relation to their conduct. Employers must be consistent. If other employees have previously committed the same offence but have not been dismissed it may be difficult to justify dismissal on a subsequent occasion. Certain offences are contrary to acceptable conduct that discipline is readily accepted or justified upon review regardless of whether there was any prior communication or warning to the employee. Theft Intentional destruction of company property Total refusal to perform safe work Gross or intentional endangerment of the safety of coworkers. Excessive absenteeism is another factor that can lead to termination only after a series of lesser penalties. Dismissal for misconduct to be reasonable: Even though an employer may have strong suspicions that an individual is guilty of misconduct, this may not be enough. Although an employer does not have to show an employee committed the offence â€Å"beyond all reasonable doubt†, there is a threshold that must be reached. In particular: †¢The employer must believe that the employee is responsible for the conduct in question. †¢The employer must have reasonable grounds for this belief. †¢The employer must carry out as much of an investigation into the matter as is reasonable. Charging an Employee with a criminal offence: †¢The employer does not have to wait for the outcome of police investigations or criminal trial. †¢The employer should hold its own investigation into the matter. †¢The employee's rights to have this matter investigated by his employer and to present his side of the story remain regardless of the fact that he is charged by the police. Out of office misconduct: †¢Generally, employees will only be subject to the company's disciplinary rules and procedures during their office hours or when they represent the company. †¢In certain circumstances an employee's behaviour may be subject to the employer's scrutiny if it is deemed to be likely to impact on the performance of his contract or the reputation of the employer. Out of office misconduct must be particularly serious to warrant disciplinary action and the behaviour should also relate to the employee's ability (or perceived ability) to do his job. Disciplinary action The type of disciplinary action that is taken will depend on the employer's disciplinary procedures and the circumstances surrounding the misconduct. The employer will have to follow its written guidelines regarding certain types of misconduct. If historically an employer has always been lenient on a particular matter an Employment Tribunal is likely to find the employer has acted unreasonably and unfairly dismissed an individual if it suddenly decides to invoke its disciplinary procedures in disciplining individuals without warning. Warning tiers in a disciplinary procedure †¢Usually employers will decide to issue a first warning orally. This is appropriate if it is a minor infringement that cannot be dealt with on an informal basis. The employee should be told that this is the first step in the disciplinary procedure and why he is receiving the warning. At this point he should also be informed of his right of appeal against the decision. Although oral warnings will be kept on an employee's personnel file, they should be disregarded for further disciplinary purposes after a specific period of time. †¢If an employer regards an infringement as being more serious then the employee should be given a formal written warning. Again an employee should be given details of the reason for the warning as well as what is required from the individual in the future and the allotted time scale for improvement. Employees should have a right of appeal. Employees also must be warned what penalty there will be if after the allotted time the employer does think there has been a satisfactory improvement. The written warning should also be kept on the employee's personnel file but cannot be considered for disciplinary procedures after a specific period of time. A final written warning is appropriate if there has been a failure to either improve or change conduct while the earlier warning is still ‘live'. This type of warning can also be used if there is a one-off occurrence of misconduct that is deemed by the employer to be sufficiently serious. As always the final written warning should provide details of the misconduct, warn that failure to rectify the situation may lead to dismissal or some other disciplinary ac tion which is short of dismissal (which is explained below). Again employees must be told of their right to appeal. The written warning can only remain live for a specified period of time after which point it must be disregarded, no matter how serious the misconduct. †¢Disciplinary action short of dismissal may include a transfer, demotion, loss of seniority, suspension without pay or loss of increment. An employer cannot take these sanctions unless there is a specific provision in the employee's contract. †¢If an employer decides to dismiss (either because of gross misconduct or failure to rectify behaviour following a final written warning) the employee should be informed as soon as possible of the decision, as well as the reasons for the dismissal. He should also know the date their employment will terminate and the period of notice. An employee should also be told of the fact that he has the right to appeal as well as how he can make that appeal and to whom. Employers should also confirm the decision to dismiss in writing. If an employee has at least one year's continuous service they can request a written statement of particulars of reasons for their dismissal. †¢General considerations for employers when disciplining †¢A good disciplinary procedure will enable an employer to take appropriate steps in the event of misconduct of an employee. The disciplinary procedure should be in writing Consequences of Disciplinary actions: Union Grievance Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Complaint (EEOC) Law Suits Employee Buyouts Having to Reinstate Employee Embarrassment to Leadership Leadership Looses Credibility Employees Don’t Respect the process Creating an Ethical climate in the Organization to avoid Misconduct : The ethical climate of an organization is the shared set of understandings about what is correct behavior and how ethical issues will be handled. This climate sets the tone for decision making at all levels and in all circumstances. Some of the factors that may be emphasized in different ethical climates of organizations are (Hunt, 1991; Schneider and Rentsch, 1991): * Personal self-interest * Company profit * Operating efficiency * Individual friendships * Team interests * Social responsibility * Personal morality * Rules and standard procedures * Laws and professional codes As suggested by the prior list, the ethical climate of different organizations can emphasize different things. In the Johnson & Johnson example just cited, the ethical climate supported doing the right thing due to social responsibility–regardless of the cost. In other organizations–perhaps too many–concerns for operating efficiency may outweigh social considerations when similarly difficult decisions are faced. When the ethical climate is not clear and positive, ethical dilemmas will often result in unethical behavior. In such instances, an organization's culture also can predispose its members to behave unethically. For example, recent research has found a relationship between organizations with a history of violating the law and continued illegal behavior (Baucus and Near, 1991). Thus, some organizations have a culture that reinforces illegal activity. In addition, some firms are known to selectively recruit and promote employees who have personal values consistent with illegal behavior; firms also may socialize employees to engage in illegal acts as a part of their normal job duties (Conklin, 1977; Geis, 1977). For instance, in his account of cases concerning price fixing for heavy electrical equipment, Geis noted that General Electric removed a manager who refused to discuss prices with a competitor from his job and offered his successor the position with the understanding that management believed he would behave as expected and engage in price-fixing activities (Geis, 1977, p. 24; Baucus and Near, 1991). Pressure, opportunity, and predisposition can all lead to unethical activities; however, organizations must still take a proactive stance to promote an ethical climate. The final section provides some useful suggestions available to organizations for creating a more ethical climate. PROMOTING AN ETHICAL CLIMATE: Ethical Philosop hies and Employee Behavior: Recent literature has suggested several strategies for promoting ethical behavior in organizations (Adler and Bird, 1988; Burns, 1987; Harrington, 1991; Raelin, 1987; Stead etal. , 1990). First, chief executives should encourage ethical consciousness in their organizations from the top down showing the support and care about ethical practices. Second, formal processes should be used to support and reinforce ethical behavior. For example, internal regulation may involve the use of codes of corporate ethics, and the availability of appeals processes. Finally, it is recommended that the philosophies of top managers as well as immediate supervisors focus on the institutionalization of ethical norms and practices that are incorporated into all organizational levels. The philosophies of top managers as well as immediate supervisors represent a critical organizational factor influencing the ethical behavior of employees (Stead etal. , 1990). Research over a period of more than twenty-five years clearly support the conclusion that the ethical philosophies of management have a major impact on the ethical behavior of their followers employees (Arlow and Ulrich, 1980; Baumhart, 1961; Brenner and Molander, 1977; Carroll, 1978; Hegarty and Sims, 1978, 1979; Posner and Schmidt, 1984; Touche Ross, 1988; Vitell and Festervand, 1987; Worrell etal. 1985). Nielsen (1989) has stressed the importance of managerial behavior in contributing to ethical or unethical behavior. According to Nielsen, managers behaving unethically contrary to their ethical philosophies represent a serious limit to ethical reasoning in the firm. Much of the research cited in the above paragraph implicitly and explicitly states that ethical philosophies will have little impact on employe es' ethical behavior unless they are supported by managerial behaviors that are consistent with these philosophies. Managers represent significant others in the organizational lives of employees and as such often have their behavior modeled by employees. One of the most basic of management principles states that if a certain behavior is desired, it should be reinforced. No doubt, how ethical behavior is perceived by individuals and reinforced by an organization determines the kind of ethical behavior exhibited by employees. As a result, if business leaders want to promote ethical behavior they must accept more responsibility for establishing their organization's reinforcement system. Research in ethical behavior strongly supports the conclusion that if ethical behavior is desired, the performance measurement, appraisal and reward systems must be modified to account for ethical behavior (Hegarty and Sims, 1978, 1979; Trevino, 1986; Worrell et al. , 1985). According to Nielsen (1988, p. 730): In many cases, mangers choose to do, go along with or ignore the unethical†¦ because they want to avoid the possibility of punishments (or) to gain rewards. Ethical Culture: Organizations and their managers must understand that the above recommendations are key components in the development and maintenance of an ethically-oriented organizational culture. Organizations can also enhance an ethically-oriented culture by paying particular attention to principled organizational dissent. Principled organizational dissent is an important concept linking organizational culture to ethical behavior. Principled organizational dissent is the effort by individuals in the organization to protest the status quo because of their objection on ethical grounds, to some practice or policy (Graham, 1986). Organizations committed to promoting an ethical climate should encourage principled organizational dissent instead of punishing such behavior. Organizations should also provide more ethics training to strengthen their employees' personal ethical framework. That is, organizations must devote more resources to ethics training programs to help its members clarify their ethical frameworks and practice self-discipline when making ethical decisions in difficult circumstances. What follows is a useful seven-step checklist that organizations should use to help their employees in dealing with an ethical dilemma (Schermerhorn, 1989; Otten, 1986): Helping employees in dealing with Ethical Dilemma: (1) Recognize and clarify the dilemma. (2) Get all the possible facts. (3) List your options–all of them. (4) Test each option by asking: â€Å"Is it legal? Is it right? Is it beneficial? † (5) Make your decision. (6) Double check your decision by asking: â€Å"How would I feel if my family found out about this? How would I feel if my decision was printed in the local newspaper? † (7) Take action. An effective organizational culture should encourage ethical behavior and discourage unethical behavior. Admittedly, ethical behavior may â€Å"cost† the organization. An example might be the loss of sales when a multinational firm refuses to pay a bribe to secure business in a particular country. Certainly, individuals might be reinforced for behaving unethically (particularly if they do not get caught). In a similar fashion, an organization might seem to gain from unethical actions. For example, a purchasing agent for a large corporation might be bribed to purchase all needed office supplies from a particular supplier. However, such gains are often short-term rather than long-term in nature. In the long run, an organization cannot operate if its prevailing culture and values are not congruent with those of society. This is just as true as the observation that, in the long run, an organization cannot survive unless it produces goods and services that society wants and needs. Thus an organizational culture that promotes ethical behavior is not only more compatible with prevailing cultural values, but, in fact, makes good sense. Although much remains to be learned about why ethical behavior occurs in organizations and creating and maintaining organizational cultures that encourage ethical behavior, organizations can benefit from the following suggestions: Maintaining organizational cultures that encourage ethical behavior: ** Be realistic in setting values and goals regarding employment relationships. Do not promise what the organization cannot deliver. ** Encourage input throughout the organization regarding appropriate values and practices for implementing the cultures. Choose values that represent the views of employees at all levels of the organization. * Do not automatically opt for a â€Å"strong† culture. Explore methods to provide for diversity and dissent, such as grievance or complaint mechanisms or other internal review procedures. ** Insure that a whistle-blowing and/or ethical concerns procedure is established for internal problem-solving (Harrington, 1991). ** Provide ethics training pro grams for all employees. These programs should explain the underlying ethical and legal (Drake and Drake, 1988) principles and present practical aspects of carrying our procedural guidelines. Understand that not all ethical situations are clear-cut. Like many basic business situations, the organization should recognize that there are ambiguous, grey areas where ethical tradeoffs may be necessary. More importantly, some situations have no simple solution (Cooke, 1991). ** Integrate ethical decision-making into the performance appraisal process. Responsibilities of Employers in accordance with managing the behaviour of Employees: †¢treat all employees equally; †¢give consideration to the employee's general work record including their length of service, position and whether there are any special circumstances; †¢ensure incidents are dealt with without undue delay; ensure the proceedings (including any statements from witnesses and records) be kept confidential; †¢specify what disciplinary sanctions the company may take; †¢state who has authority within the company to take each level of disciplinary action; †¢ensure employees are informed of the allegations against them as well as any relevant documenta tion before the date of any hearing; †¢ensure that employees have the right to state their case before any decision is reached; †¢allow employees to be accompanied either by a colleague or if appropriate, a trade union official; †¢ensure that the sanctions are proportionate to the misconduct; †¢ensure that allegations will be carefully investigated; †¢ensure employees are given an explanation of any sanction; and †¢Specify that there is a right to appeal as well as how and when this must be taken. Finally†¦To conclude†¦ Ethical behavior among the employees can be inculcated by adopting the following principles of ethical climate. oMake the expectations clear oTreat the people employed as if they are adults, which they are. oSpend time meeting with staff members regularly oSevere discipline procedures may back fire. oMake all policies and procedures available to all employees. oEncourage open communication between you and the people who report to you. Human beings prefer to follow their own doctrines- therefore management should be aware that difficulties may crop up and should formulate friendly implementation of policies. â€Å" No man is fit to command another that cannot command himself† – William Penn References: 1. http://www. ethicsworld. org/ethicsandemployees/nbes. php 2. http://www. michaelpage. co. uk/content. html? pageId=15676 3. Managing misconduct By Rob Eldridge of Berwin Leighton Paisner 4. http://www. employeeterminationguidebook. com/ 5. http://www. lbwlawyers. com/publications/employeemisconduct. php 6. http://www. slideshare. net/meetsantanudas/managing-employee-discipline 7. http://www. fsa. usda. gov/FSA/hrdapp? area=home=mgrs=dem 8. http://www. employeemisconduct. com/ 9. Edward J. Tully December 1997 Misconduct, Corruption, Abuse of Power– What Can the Chief Do? 10. http://www. streetdirectory. com/travel_guide/20341/corporate_matters/how_employee_misconduct_affects_all_worker_productivity. html 11. Belt Tightening Tactics Linked to Increases in Employee Misconduct April 27, 2010 by Amy Coates Madsen 12. http://standardsforexcellenceinstitute. wordpress. com/page/2/ 13. W. Edward Stead, Dan L. Worrell and Jean Garner Stead An integrative model for understanding and managing ethical behavior in business organizations Journal of Business Ethics Volume 9, Number 3, 233-242 14. Ethical behavior starts at the top By Amy Schurr, Network World April 24, 2007 12:05 AM ET

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Attorney-client - Essay Example Doe has advised his attorney that he did, in fact, kill the person for which he has been arrested. While Ms. Smith did not solicit this information during the discussion, she is now privy to the fact that her client is guilty. This revelation, however, does not require Ms. Smith to notify the authorities. As an officer of the court, she is precluded from putting a witness—in this case Mr. Doe—on the stand if she knows that the witness will commit perjury; but she is not mandated to turn her client in as a result of the attorney-client privilege. It should be noted that the right to have one’s discussions with an attorney kept private is absolute in the United States. In fact, courts â€Å"have considered the attorney-client privilege to be among the most fundamental testimonial privileges in the legal system" (Kressel, 2006, p. 413). The reason for this is clear, and was recently set forth by Silbert & Joannou (2006) as necessary because it â€Å"protects confi dential communications between an attorney and his client and exists to encourage full and frank communication between attorneys and their clients and thereby promote broader public interests in the observance of law and administration of justice" (Silbert & Joannou, 2006, p. 1225). Thus, with just these facts, it is understood that Mr. Doe is safe from prosecution as a result of his attorney’s knowledge; he won’t be put on the stand to testify in his own defense, but he will not be revealed as the murderer by Ms. Smith either. His secret is safe with his attorney, who will mount an aggressive defense and force the prosecution to prove its case beyond a reasonable doubt. Only one added fact could change this dynamic and actually reverse the situation. Assuming all facts as provided above, add the fact that during their conversations, Mr. Doe not only reveals that he is the killer, but is holding the child of the victim hostage in his basement. At this point, Ms. Smith has no

Finance in the Hospitality Indusry Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Finance in the Hospitality Indusry - Assignment Example Suppliers offer credit by supplying goods that do not require an immediate payment. However, a good number of suppliers provide a credit to individuals that have developed an established track record. A majority of retailers are presently offering various products on credit, such as equipments, via a financial institution. In addition, an individual can obtain a loan and other financial products such as an overdraft facility and asset financing via various financial institutions. Financial institutions range from banks to credit unions. In relation to an internal equity, an individual can finance a firm by the help of saved funds or ploughed back profits. An internal equity is majorly employed by various individuals that are seeking to start a business or running an established business. An internal equity is cheap since an individual is not expected to pay fees for borrowing money (Robinson, 2009). The other method of financing a firm is via an external equity, which includes friend s, government, venture capitalist, stock market and private investors among others. A government may provide financing to a new or existing business. Venture capitalists are large institutions that provide a large amount of money for a potential or existing firm. However, venture capitalists are characterized by the need to have a large share of a firm to effect management about the firm’s operations. ... However, this approach is associated with a number of flaws given that a majority of markets are characterized by various inefficiencies. As a result, an individual can easily fall short of raising a required level of capital. Given that the William’s family is required to raise more than sterling pounds 62,000 to take over The Enchanted Valley B&B, the family should consider approaching the London Stock Exchange since it is more efficient than other stock markets in the world. This would give the family a chance to raise an adequate capital due to favorable qualities of the firms, such as a strategic location and executive finishing. The family should also approach various private investors. The family should, however, ensure that the investors do not seek more than 50% of the company’s share. These methods are appropriate for the Williams family to raise the required level of capital without risking transferring the power of making the firm’s management decisio ns. Sources of the Firm’s Generating Income The firm generates an income from a number of services and products. The key products that offer an income include food and beverages which amounted to $135,000 (selling revenues). Having resulted in a cost of $45,000 and allowance of $5,000, the firm experienced a gross profit of $85,000. The other income was generated by rooms’ rental which amounted to $600. Other services such as parking contributed to a significant profit of $3100. This means that beverages and food contributed to 95.83% (85,000/88,700*100%) of the total gross profit. On the other hand, rooms’ rental contributed to 0.068% of the gross income (600/88,500*100%).

3 QUESTIONS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE and deviance Coursework - 2

3 QUESTIONS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE and deviance - Coursework Example In the United States, which supposedly has a better set of laws than states such as Colombia or Iran, there still are reprehensible violations and deviant behaviour. For example, Abu Ghraib, a former Iraqi prison, became a stellar example of the US military’s capacity for elite deviance. . There had been blatant violations of the rights of the prisoners as the photographs that leaked out of Abu Ghraib confirm. The report filed by Major General Taguba on his inspection of the institution was a graphic representation of how the prison was run (Hersh, 2004). The pictures which started the whole controversy were proof enough of the culpability of the participants. A justification given is that â€Å"it has become increasingly difficult to distinguish insurgents from citizens within the population† (Lane: 2009, 3), however it still cannot justify the level of atrocities. To the extent that US support for such regimes is based on arms rather than development, U.S. policy becomes a factor in exacerbating these wretched conditions. By 1993, yearly U.S. weapons sales to foreign nations had reached $33billion. In 1983, the United States was the primary supplier to at least twenty of the world’s nations engaged in war at that time. Also, it would appear that elite deviance in the United States is motivated by money, whilst elite deviance elsewhere, or global elite deviance can be motivated by other things, such as religion or nationalism. There are impacts on the well-being of a person who have unjustified stigmatization and these impacts are deep and profound. For example, the stigma against obese women. According to Thio, et. al., â€Å"the obese typically accept the denigration thin society dishes out to them because they feel for the most part that they deserve it. And they do not defend other fat people who are being criticized because they are a mirror of themselves; they mirror

Quanitative problem statement surrounding the development of a rapid Essay

Quanitative problem statement surrounding the development of a rapid response team to reduce codes outside of the ICU - Essay Example The benefit of RRTs is that there is a drop in cardiac and respiratory arrests outside of the intensive care units (Simmonds, 2005). The scope and nature of the RRT is such that the professionals attached to the team have to be extremely competent, which means that these professionals drawn away from other areas of requirement in a health care environment. There may be an argument that the nursing actions in RRTs assist patient nurses in formulating the situation, background, assessment, and recommendation (SBAR). However this hardly diminishes that RRTs pose to nursing in terms of the lack of experience, work pressure due to high patient nurse ratio, which are factors in the high turnover among nursing professionals. It must be remembered that the nursing professionals attached to RRTs are expected to carry with them critical thinking skills, and that these nursing professionals come from non-intensive care environments, where skills and competencies are present in a much lesser deg ree than in the case of the nursing professionals in the intensive care environment. Thus it is important that appropriate education and training be given to nursing professionals before being made a part of RRTs, along with choosing the appropriate nursing professionals for such a role.

Enabling Learning and Assessment Essay Example for Free

Enabling Learning and Assessment Essay 1. The purposes of assessment Assessment is the process of evaluating an individual’s learning. It involves generating and collecting evidence of a learner’s attainment of knowledge and skills and judging that evidence against defined standards. Tummons suggested that: ‘With assessment we can: * Find out if learning has taken place; * Diagnose learners needs; * Provide public acknowledgment and certification of learning * Allow processes of selection to be carried out; * Provide way to evaluate learning programmes; * Motivate and encourage learners.’ Tummons (2009:5) Written justification of assessment methods I have chosen to do Holding and aiming in the prone position, I would do this by getting the SUT in the tramline formation. This is where they will number off in pairs, so all the No.1’s on one side of the room whilst all the No.2’s are on the other side of the room. I will get the No.1’s to conduct the drill when I give the word of command. The No.1’s will be ensuring they adopt the prone position correctly, going through the 9 key point check list and taking aim on the target. Whilst this is happening the No.2’s will be observing throughout looking for any mistakes. Once the No.1’s have completed the drill I will go down the line asking the No.2’s if they observed any mistakes. By doing this I am getting the SUT to give out peer assessment on the progress of his/hers drill on the weapon system as this can develop and motivate student. The student will also have their own self assessment; this is where the students are assessing their own progress  throughout the lesson. These methods encourage the SUT to make decisions about what has been learnt so far, and to reflect on aspects for further development. Once the No.1’s have completed the drill, the same process will happen with the No.2’s and the No.1’s looking and observing for any mistakes. Whilst all this is going on I will be looking for any mistakes as I watch from one end of the tramline formation, this is called tutor assessment and can help give feedback to the student to guide them on their strength and areas of development. This is also known as formative assessment so it can provide for me a continuous source of information about the students’ progress, improvement and problems encountered in the learning process, so I together we can develop their confidence and competence on the weapon system. 2. Practical assessment a) Aim The aim of a practical assessment in a classroom environment is to ensure that when handling a weapon system that the necessary measures and safety precaution is carried out correctly and sufficiently. It is my aim to make sure that the SUT carry out the drills correctly, if however people are struggling to adapt to the new drills then it’s up to me the instructor to change my approach to the individual learning style. b) Reason for selecting practical learning assessment We use practical assessment in the army especially when teaching a particular subject like Skill at Arms to help us as a teacher to confirm that the SUT have understood the correct handling of the weapon. It’s not only a confirmation for the teacher but a confirmation for the individual that he/she has took on board the new skill and knowledge they have been taught in the lesson. During the lesson, when I have demonstrated a new drill, the SUT are required to imitate the drill whilst I explain and demonstrate it, taking it step by step. Once I am happy that the SUT have grasped the new drill, a confirmation is done to ensure that the SUT understands the new  weapon drill. This will be done when I give the word of command and the SUT carrying out the drill without any help or guidance as I watch and observes for any mistakes that the SUT may do. In order for the SUT to use blank or live ammunition on exercise or on the ranges, they are required to pass a Weapon Handling Test (WHT) which is a critical practical assessment as it is part of their summative test and needs to be done twice a year. I will give a number of instructions which the SUT must complete correctly and confidently in order to pass. There is no time limit and they are allowed one mistake on each stage of the test. This assessment is to show that he/she has the knowledge and skill to handle the weapon with blank or live ammunition with confidence. For assessment of practical activities, the potential barriers should be considered and reasonable adjustments developed that meet the needs of the individual learner. Many of the adjustments for a practical assessment are similar to those of a written assessment. We must however be aware of the learners/individual learning styles as this will vary across each lesson we teach. If we look at Fleming understanding of learning styles which he used the terminology of VARK, he stated that people can be grouped into four styles of learning: * Visual – Seeing. * Aural – Listening and talking. * Read/Write – Reading and writing. * Kinaesthetic – Doing. (Gravells 2012:40) The SUT will come under one or more of these learning styles and as I have seen it in the past whilst teaching, I have to adapt as a teacher to accommodate to their preferred learning style which means I have to plan and break down my lesson to ensure all SUT get the full benefit of what is being taught to them. Sue Crowley of the IFL stated: Often new teachers teach as they were taught, then perhaps as they would like  to have been taught, and finally they realise different ways and a wider spectrum of teaching and learning approaches are needed and available. (Gravells 2012:40) A statement in which I agree upon as my thought process was similar but when teaching SUT it’s taught me to adapt my teaching skills to benefit the individuals so they can get the best outcome during the lesson. c) Conduct of the practical assessment The SUT will be assessed throughout the lesson and this can be done in many ways as it is classroom based, this will be an informal assessment. As the SUT reacts to the word of command for example; ‘For inspection port arms’ they are to carry out the necessary drill in which I will observe for mistakes. Observation is a good way to assess the skills, knowledge and attitudes of the SUT. When observing, it enables me to see how well the SUT are doing, letting them make mistakes as long as it is safe, especially when dealing with a weapon so they can learn from their own mistakes. Once the drill is complete I can ask each individual if they made any mistakes and give them self assessment, otherwise I can give negative or positive feedback to the SUT. Observation is good within our training establishment as it assess the SUT competence, skills and attitudes when dealing with a weapon and the observation can follow on with a question to check the knowledge and understanding. SUT training can be assessed in two other ways and they are called peer assessment and self assessment. For the instructor to see this happen, the students will pair up and work as a team. Whilst one SUT does the drill on the weapon whilst the other partner watches for mistakes, this is called peer assessment, but at the same time SUT who is carrying out the drill can self assess as he/she goes along. If the student was to carry out the Load, Ready, Unload drill, their partner can look in for any mistakes and as the instructor asks the observer from each team if there were any mistakes, this can be useful to develop and motivate the SUT. Peer assessments can be affective as SUT feedback is given skilfully, but other students may think more about what their peers have said than about what the instructor have said. 3. Question assessment a) Aim The aim of a question assessment is for the instructor to see if the SUT can demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the subject being taught to them. It also helps when asking a question to the SUT that they have to think about their answer. b) Conduct of a Question assessment During each lesson throughout the army, as an instructor we will always ask the SUT questions of the particular topic that we have been learning about before moving on to the next topic or next stage of the lesson. This is formal or informal assessment and is used to assess cognitive ability which can be used whenever the instructor wants to assess the knowledge and understanding of SUT. When giving a lesson on Skill at Arms, ‘Different combat position.’ The instructor will always give an explanation of why we do it and when to incorporate the positions for example, on the ranges or when we are on operational tour, followed by a demonstration. As the instructor has given the explanation and demonstration, we will go through the demonstration again whilst the SUT imitate you as you take them through step by step. Whilst doing this process we normally ask the SUT questions on the next stage of the movement, pausing for a second and then state the name of the learner who can answer. This way, all SUT is thinking about the answer as soon as you have posed the question, and is ready to speak if their name is asked. This assessment not only help the instructor to confirm that the individual or group know the answer but helps their peers to understand it as well. We also do oral written assessment, as this is part  of the minimum core, for example before I start the lesson I would ask the SUT to take out their note books and pens. I will ask them a number of questions in which they will write their answers in their note books which will be marked before the lesson take place. If for some reason some of the SUT get a few questions wrong I will ensure that I make a plan in the evening to go through the questions or drill in which they got incorrect so that they are at the same stage as all the other SUT. Asking questions to the SUT and for them responding in giving the answers back to the instructor is self assessment and peers assessment so that the SUT know what areas they are good at and what areas they need to work on. However it’s good for the tutor assessment to understand how the SUT progress is going by conducting these assessments. C)  Advantages| Disadvantages| Problems can be solved| SUT don’t know the answer| Question being answered| SUT can be put on the spot| Understanding people’s views and opinions| | Gives people a voice| | 4. Reflecting on how feedback has informed your learners’ progress and achievement Feedback is a vital part of the learners’ training at the army foundation college as it informs the SUT on their progress and achievement. To make sure it is effective it is important that we develop rapport, mutual respect and trust between the instructor and the SUT. During a Skill at Arms lesson it is important to give effective feedback as this informs the SUT on how well they are doing or on what areas they might need to work on. I try to give out the best feedback as I can to the SUT or the individual as I know this will help reassure, boost confidence, encourage, motivate and develop their knowledge, skills. It can help the SUT to maximize their potential and professional development at different stages of training, raise their awareness of strengths and areas for improvement, and identify actions to be  taken to improve their performance. 5. Reflecting on how feedback from others has informed your own professional practice On the 1st November 2012, I conducted a lesson on pain relief (Morphine) which was observed by an assessor. I felt that the lesson was well structured, planned and I got the key learning points across to the SUT. Once the lesson ended I sat down with my assessor and was given feedback on my lesson. The written feedback said this: The session had a clear and important content to communicate. This was achieved and checked by the test. A stronger introduction would set the scene and provide guidance to learners of what they had to do during the lesson. Focus on the test/know the purpose of the test. The conclusion could tell learners what to do with the test papers and how this will be an aide memoire. Test was very well created, covering all key learning and checking recall, understanding and application. It could be improved with clear guidance i.e. working individually without referring to their notes. As this was ‘assessment for learning’ as well as ‘assessment of learning’ learners could work individually, with a partner and finally as a whole group to get the answers/self assessment and check learning. You could get feedback on results from the test by asking those who got 100% to stand up – an energiser, positive motivation and a simple measure for you. This feedback has opened my eyes a lot clearer as I was more channelled to delivering a simple but constructed lesson. Just by delivering a stronger introduction can make the learner motivated to learn, which I didn’t realise until someone made it aware to me. It was a good motivation and energiser to hear from the assessor that the test paper was well created which gave me that sense of pride. However when it came to handing out the test paper, giving the SUT a certain amount of time to do it in and once they had completed it they would mark their own paper as I went along with the answers. Just from what the assessor has written in the feedback it can give  the learner self assessment and check their learning, so in future I will take more time on how I construct the test and how to mark it as this will give me a feedback on the progress of the SUT. 6. Reference List: * http://www.open.ac.uk/inclusiveteaching/pages/inclusive-teaching/barriers-to-learning.php Date accessed 8.11.12 * Tummons J – (2009) Assessing learning in the lifelong learning sector. Exeter: Learning Matters * Gravells A (2012) Preparing to teach in the lifelong learning sector. London: Learning Matters * www.faculty.londondeanery.ac.uk

Group Formation And Group Roles

Group Formation And Group Roles Which work is better, a group work or an individual work. There is no answer to this question as it has many facets. Our main focus during the group assignment was to analyze the organizational structure; culture and management and leadership style. In this essay, I have analyzed and evaluated the one aspect during the group work, its approaches and its relevant theories. I have highlighted my aim and justification of the performance by illustrating the group formation: identifying both the aspect positive as well as negative. I have interrelated my experience with the theories and also focused on how group roles played an important role during the group assignment. This essay is divided into four parts but interlinked parts. The first part includes Group Formation and Group Roles: development and its related issues. The second part focuses on the approaches to the group roles. The third part focuses on the identifying the effects when a similar situation happens in the organization. The final part focuses on diagnosing or suggesting the various group role models. Conclusion is also included in the end. 2.0 GROUP FORMATION AND GROUP ROLES An individuals performance enlighten into an optimum group. It is a reflection of what I have written in my personal diary and also, from the recording of the meeting. The group passes through five clearly defined stages of development, which they labeled as forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning (Tuckman, 1965; Tuckman and Jensen, 1977) 2.1 FORMING In my viewpoint, forming a group before doing a task is an important issue. Our Group can be called FORMAL group, which was deliberately created to complete the project. Initially, I was feeling uncomfortable with the group because our ideas and way of thinking were not alike. It was formed because we were sitting next to each other. I thought to form a group with people who have opinions about the subject and had been always outspoken. In our group, four members were from same nationality and one from other nationality. All the members from the same nationality were from different corners of the country. I believe point of doing an assignment is not only going along with group but also to work on something, which is unknown to you. This is the reason we decided to have diversification in the group. Diversification is important because we get to know about the working environment of the other nationalities. It was also a test of adaptability. In the group, I think important role is of a Leader but no one emerged as a leader within the group because everyone wants to work on of its own in their comfortable space. 2.2 STORMING On our first group meeting, we had a conversation about the selection of organization. We had storming two-hour session and were discussing to either select the organization that has a worldwide reach or to select a national organization. I was favoring to have a national organization because it will be gives us an advantage since we dont have much experience person in the group. At the end of the session, we decided to take a national organization for various reasons. Group meeting left us with various questions: 1) Which kind of organization should be taken? 2) How can we benefit our project? 3) From where and how can we collect data? 4) Evaluation of the organization? After the meeting, it was decided that everyone has to come up with one organization and have to work on the questions above within a week. I think two members didnt like the way the process was going on. While coming from the meeting, they told me to focus on Something Concrete and they were feeling shy to give out the opinions. I asked them to write everything in an email and send it to everyone in the group. 2.3 NORMING Norming is a period where we should trust each other and try to develop an atmosphere where everyone can work. Initially, I was unhappy with group but after our first meeting, I felt little relaxed that some members were responding and giving out the opinions. The member whom I suggested to give out the mails didnt send any e-mail neither they came with any organization and its working in the second meeting. So, the other three members gave out their suggestion and their respective organization. The member from the other nationality gave out the best suggestion and was decided to choose it as a topic. When we were dividing out the sections of the outline, members including myself showed some anger and irritation. Due to domination by one member, no one was able to choose theirs respective topics and roles. My role to become the leader of the group was not accepted by the other member. The other member wanted no one to become the leader in the group. I believe everybody has an intention to become the leader. Since, there was no leader. Everybody chose their role in a way that even they were not even aware of the responsibilities with the role. The main motive of the group is to able to present the best work you can do as group and also not letting the other group members down. This thing actually calmed me down and then, decided to work on some other aspect of the organization. Altercation happened between other members as well for the same reason. Nobody was willing to get out of his comfortable zone. We also decided to communicate with each other regularly, because it has been seen that group who are not performing well is a lack of communication and knowledge but it doesnt come off. 2.4 PERFORMING This is the crucial point of the group, which test the ability and consensus within the group. After working for more than 2 weeks and giving out suggestion through meetings and emails, no one including myself had completed the work. From the initial period of the group formation till the time of performing, we had lot of contradiction within the group and were not getting along but motivation to give the best project always had given us to move forward and also to perform. During our group performance, I think sections in the outline were not properly drawn as the data that was collected was colliding with each others work. My part was to work on the organization structure. It was very lengthy but with help of other members I was able to finish it in time. Sometimes, when I had any problem with the structure, my other members were willing to help me. Even at end of the project, I believe delegation of work was not done properly. If it had been, then we could have made a better proje ct. 2.5 ADJOURNING Anxiety and excitement didnt allow me to sleep for two nights before submission. I feel that I have given out my best in this project. After the completion of the project and reading the project again gave me a sense that anyhow work can be done. After submitting the assignment, everybody in the group shook hands with each other and also celebrated for the submission. During the project, I made new relationship with members and also, decided to take one of the members for the next group assignment (International Banking). Our group had achieved the goals what we decided in the initial stage and thus, was the time to adjourn the group. We regularly faced the problem at several times. As a member of the group, we regularly faced the problem at different times. There was a cycle of storming, norming and performing at every stage. 3.0 APPROACHES TO GROUP ROLES This part of the essay, firstly I would like to write about the problems that I have faced while working with group. Secondly, how I could have made it better or will be acting on the similar situations in the future. The experience I had and the problem I faced will be an advantage in my future assignments, as it will give me a better understanding of the roles. We have followed the model of Benne and Sheats (1948) to achieve our goals. The role that we have mutually delegated to every member was different. Firstly, Information-Giver is a person who finds out all the relevant information before moving forward. Also, clarifies the problem if there is something missing or unclear. In our second meeting, we decided to assign one member to gather all the information. He provided us with the primary data but he did not make clarifications on some issues. He gave us the overview of the organization but was never able to provide with the insights of the organization. So, everyone in the group has to their relative research about their work, which gave us conflict between our works. Secondly, we decided to communicate and work at all times. Whenever I was asked to give out Opinions on any subject, I was willing to do that. Sometimes, even I cannot suggest something on some issues until and unless I have the proper evidence to support it. I asked for the help if I am in a problem or not able to understand, members willingly helped me. I would say everyone in a group was an opinion giver. Sometimes, opinions and suggestion are followed by the egos and domination. Since, our group was a leaderless group. Everybody in the group wanted to dominate the group. At some point, I felt the same but I have realized that giving out opinions doesnt mean that the person can lead the group until and unless has the characteristics of the leaders. Thirdly, for the conclusion of the topic, we assigned one of the members as an Evaluate-critic. As he was given the authority to look after the each part of the topic and critically analyze and write down the conclusion accordingly. He started criticizing the points that we have written also belittling us. After the submission of the assignment, he was boasting himself and was trying to take credit from other members. If I had been in the same position, I would never try to take the credit of the people and would also appreciate the work of others. Fourthly, the main problem we faced during our group was that one of member possesses the traits of the Dominator. From the beginning till adjourning of the group, the member was trying to show him as a leader but a leader is different from dominator. He was forcing everyone in the group to do the work accordingly and roles that he has assigned but a leader gives liberty to the other members to work according to their characteristics. Conflict mounted due to this issue in the group. This instance gave me an experience that there is a little difference between a leader and a dominator. There is always an advantage to have a leader over dominator in the group. 4.0 EFFECTS OF GROUP ROLES IN AN ORGANISATION In this section, I would like to evaluate the Benne and Sheats (1948) Group roles theory into an organization taking my personal experience into consideration. I will consider the similar situation in an organization in terms of Group Formation and Group Roles. Benne and Sheats(1948) encouraged Social role and Beblin (1996) encouraged Team Role, t he two most common frames of reference on group roles which have been suggested below:- In my perspective, Team role should be considered within an organization. Individual work is different from teamwork but from my perception and perspective of an organization, Team role can lead to a better understanding between the members of the group. As I have experienced, Belbin (1981,1993,1996) argues the Benne and Sheats (1948) Functional Role Theory by stating that firstly, people in organization are selected on the basis of experience or ability, not on the basis of personal characteristics. Secondly, it also limits the likelihood that they will be successful in other roles. The performance of any organization can be impeded by various problems. Firstly, I would like talk about Maslows (1954) hierarchy of needs. Self-esteem in Hierarchy has been described as achievement and respect for each other that can be obtained by providing appropriate Group role to the person. Once the person is satisfied with what he is doing and it is going with his personality, he will perform better. I can relate the self-esteem with the problem we had in our group .If everyone was given their part according to their characteristic, and then we could have worked produced better result. Secondly, the flow of opinion should be made clearly without any egos and attitude. Knowledge Sharing can lead to the better work. Knowledge sharing always gives a better working environment and also, a competitive work. (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995; Nonaka and Kanno, 1998; Grant, 2005). This similar situation happened in our group, opinions were given to help each other but egos and attitude always followed and power to dominate. Knowledge sharing should be made without any hesitation and greed. Thirdly, I would like to Benne and Sheats (1948) model as the most of the positive aspect such as evaluator-critic can be transformed into Recognition Seeker (Dysfunctional) if evaluator-critic is given importance. As I mentioned above, Evaluator-critic was trying to get recognition as an individual. If the similar situations happens in the organization, this might result into a havoc because every individual is working for the organization ,not for the individual recognition. This will create disharmony in the group, which will reflect for the organization. I would like to suggest on the basis of the group role that in organization Belbin(1996) nine team role should be followed to achieve the goal and every member should be chosen in terms of their characteristics. This will increase the productivity as well as the level of healthy competition within the organization. This is how an organization can be benefited from the Group roles. 5.0 DIAGNOSIS OF GROUP ROLES APPROACH I have already argued and suggested that organization needs a proper set of roles, which can be provided to the employee and employer for the betterment of the organization. I have argued that sometimes, Task role and Maintenance role theory of Benne and Sheats (1948) transform into the Individual roles, which are self-centered and personal motives, arises. There are many concepts of Group such as Benne and Sheats(1948), Bales(1950) but most popular in modern days is Beblin(1996). The table below shows the group roles suggest by Beblin(1996). The theory above shows coherent relationship with the organization group roles. This will not only increase the performance of the organization, also the interaction between and within the groups. This can work for the big organization but with smaller group of 9-10 people. However, there are no theories without criticism. Beblins theory has been criticized by the Aitor Aritzeta et. Al (2007). Firstly, he argued that team success cannot be measured with this theory and hard to recognize that all the nine roles have been opted. Secondly, the theory takes excessive psychological perspective on role. Thirdly, the theory is unable to differentiate between different types of tasks. David Butcher and Catherine Bailey (2000) argued that Dream Team, where all member are committed to one work, and all the members are present at decision -taking time. They felt this is impractical and undesirable. 6.0 CONCLUSION I have considered many issues and explained it in terms of approaches, effects in organization and also, suggested the better way to assign the group roles. However, during my group work, I have taken the Benne and Sheats(1948) Theory which resulted in a average performance but If I would have used Beblin(1996) theory for the group roles in my group, then we could have performed better. Although, every theory has a criticism and flaws but this can be suggested that organization of today world uses Beblin Theory for group roles. I would also like to conclude that problems would never be reflected on any other assignments. The key lesson learned from this assignment that people should be judged by their characteristics and assigning the roles accordingly. It is necessary to move forward as described by Tuckman and Jensen(1965) to achieve the goals.

Software Ethics :: Software Technology Computers Essays

Software Ethics Cases Studies of Patent and Copyright Failures Copyrights and patents are used to protect a certain expressions of ideas and processes. These laws are intended to protect the inventor(s). But how useful are they? What is the computer industries’ track record in protecting inventions? What are we doing discussing ethics anyway? This paper will present a series of case studies which will illustrate how copyrights and patents have failed to protect inventors. After that discussion, the paper will examine whether there is an ethical view which could justify the failure of the patent and copyright laws. Intellectual property[1] laws have been around for some time. Inventors and creators had been and are still relying on copyright and patent laws to protect their inventions. The question naturally arises: why are they protecting their inventions and creations? There are a number of reasons. First of all, the majority of inventors feel that after spending sometimes years of hard work inventing a solution to a particular problem, they ought to get some benefit, recognition, or reward from society. In my opinion, these days many inventors are not from the upper class rich politicians as was the case up to about 100 years ago. Therefore, owning and trading intellectual property can be a means of survival for a person, an organization, and a country. More importantly, it allows an individual to negotiate with a large company. The laws can protect the small against the big. Intellectual property laws don’t always protect a single person. They can protect a company or many companies. A company can dedicate some employees to invent a certain component of a system and patent it or copyright it. This may protect the company in a variety of ways, one of which is that another company cannot hire away engineers and have them re-develop that same component. Another motivation for intellectual property laws is to showcase that if you work hard, invent something useful, or solve a significant problem, you will be rewarded. This gives incentive for others to be productive, contribute, and invent. There is a lot of controversy whether the concept of patents and copyrights are applicable to the digital age, by offering the protection of software. This paper argues that software is â€Å"different† and cannot be protected by copyrights or patents.

Herder, Gadamer, and 21st Century Humanities Essay -- Philosophy Relig

One of the anticipations of this Congress, namely, that of all the world's philosophical traditions address the 'problems of human life, civilization, and residence on earth,' cannot be accomplished by insisting upon the means and prescriptions of any one tradition. In this paper I address the theme of the Congress by considering the views of Johann Gottfried Herder and Hans-Georg Gadamer on education and history. In spite of attacks on his religious loyalties, Herder supported what may today be called pluralism. Having studied history and having watched history in the making of one of its darkest moments, Gadamer also saw the future of the humanities in the global conversation. To educate humanity, I conclude, philosophy should first attempt to understand the existential conditions of human life. Ideen is a curious and in some ways contradictory work. Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) respects the humanistic ideals of freedom and social improvement and recognizes the teleological and progressive notions of historical development. But he does not confine himself to European history and sources like most others in his time and even after did. He rejected the then prevailing view that there exist some invariant laws or standards of consciousness and behavior that are applicable to all humans at all periods and in terms of which even the past should be judged. On the contrary, he argued that every historical age and culture has its own character and its own value. In Book 14, chapter 6 of Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit (Ideas for the Philosophy of the History of Mankind, 1784-91), he likens societies to organisms as they develop in distinctive manner and in response to the combination of environmental condi... ...Gadamer on Education, Poetry, and History. Albany: SUNY Press, 1992, p. xvii (7) Gadamer. Reason in the Age of Science. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, 198. p. 92 (8) "Aber fà ¼r die Geisteswissenschaften dà ¼rfte es anders aussehen"—Das Erbe Europas. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1989, P.35 (9) Das Erbe Europas, p. 52: '. . . einer standardisierten weltzivilisation herauffà ¼hren, in der sich die Geschichte des Planeten gleichsam in Idealstatus einer rationalen Weltverwaltung stillstellt -' (10) See: Claude Sumner. The Source of African Philosophy: The Ethiopian Philosophy of Man. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1986. (11) See: Kwame Gyekye. An Essay on African Philosophical Thought: The Akan Conceptual Scheme. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987 (12) See: Paulin Hountondji. African Philosophy: Myth and Reality. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983.

Why Parenting Is More Important That School

According to Annie Murphy Paul and the studies done by the University Of California-Irvine, North Carolina State University, and Brigham University, parental involvement in their children’s academic life such as checking homework, attending school meetings and events, discussing school activities at home has a more powerful influence on students’ academic performance than anything about the school the students attend.Research also reveals something else: the parents, of all backgrounds, don’t need to buy expensive educational toys or digital devices for their kids in order to give them an edge. Engaging in this reciprocal back-and- forth gives children a chance to try out language for themselves, and also gives them a sense that their thoughts and opinion matter. All parents need to do is talk. My position on this issue presented by Annie Murphy Paul is one of agreement. I concur that talking to your children and engaging in their academic life can have a positiv e effect in their school performance.All the research that were mentioned in Paul’s article reinforced and supported the claim that students perform better or are more interested in their school work if their parents are involved and show interest in their school activities. As the article mentioned, background and digital devices are not a guarantee for good grades; neither are paying for an expensive private school or tutoring. What it comes down to is interaction, talking. I believe this to be true. When a child sees their parents’ involvement in their academia they feel a sense of importance.In my line of work I come across children and parents who come from a variety of backgrounds. Sometimes I see children and the amount of involvement that their parents play in their academic growth show through the amount of information that the child is able to retain. The multiracial children that I’ve come across who have difficulty reading and writing have this probl em because of their parents inability to speak English properly (Hispanic decent) or because of the limited amount of involvement in their child’s education progression.As a child growing up my parents’ involvement with my academics were very limited. They didn’t give me the impression that exerting great achievement in my school work was necessary so I didn’t feel the need to go to college immediately after high school. Looking back now that I’m an adult I wish they had. I feel that if they pushed me harder or talked to me and encouraged me to pursue a college career after high school it would’ve saved me a whole lot of stress as an adult, now that I’m trying to pursue my college degree. As a parent now, I throw myself into my children’s academics and social life.I try to get involved as much as possible to show them that education is important. I want them to pursue college and to be successful. I know that my involvement is an encouragement to them and they’ve told me countless times how grateful they are for my support. My daughter is always telling me how important my presence is at her school functions and my son will remember when I miss a soccer game. I believe that just the knowledge that children have of a support group, namely their parents, in their corner gives them a sense of purpose.They don’t want to disappoint their parents so they feel this pressure to please. After a while that sense of accomplishment becomes internalized to where they self-motivate themselves and want to do their best, want to get good grades, want to succeed and excel. I feel like it’s my job as a parent to motivate my children to be better than who they are, better than what/who I am, and to work for the things that they want. In conclusion, I believe that the studies conducted by scholars and gathered by Annie Murphy Paul are true.I’ve seen this first hand and I am a product of poor paren tal involvement. I can see how my involvement in my children’s lives brings positive reinforcement to their academic progression. Personally, I believe that teacher involvement does play a role in a student’s progression but not as great an impact as the parent does on the child. The family is the central learning center for every individual and if a child see’s how important their education is to their parent(s) they in turn want it for themselves to progress.

The Misfit, a Character beyond Redemption

The Misfit, a Character beyond Redemption†() In Flannery O’ Connor’s short story â€Å"A Good Man is Hard to Find,† the Misfit is a character who is interpreted as the epitome of evil. He had just escaped the federal penitentiary, and, according to the Misfit, he was incarcerated for allegedly killing his own father. He encounters a family who has been involved in an accident. The play culminates with the Misfit shooting and brutally murdering the grandmother after she reaches out to him.Despite the conversation they both had about Christianity and the kindness and sympathy the grandmother showed the Misfit, he chooses to kill her; consequently, a character beyond redemption by choosing his will to do evil after all. Throughout the play, the Misfit portrays himself as a victim since he was sent to prison and punished for something he doesn’t comprehend. He explains that the doctor in prison told him what he had done was murdered his own father but he doesn’t believe it.By the way he speaks about his parents, calling them â€Å"finest people in the world,† and saying that God never made a finer woman than his mother and that his father had a heart pure of gold (O’Connor 399), it makes the reader doubtful to believe if he committed the crime or not, even though there is evidence of his actions; â€Å"However, some psychopaths would do anything to convince themselves that they did not commit a crime† (Aaron 1), but towards the end of the play one can find it harder to believe that the Misfit is actually innocent, regardless of whether he killed his own 2. ather. The most evident example for The Misfit’s guilt is how easily he ordered his accomplices to murder the family that it makes it look as if committing crimes is nothing unusual for him (Aaron 1). Furthermore, the Misfit is a character who symbolizes evil. During the play, one can deduce that he is a liberal character who is not conscious of his actions and doesn’t see anything wrong in them.His way of not feeling any guilt of his actions, is to forget, this way any crime he commits won’t make him feel remorseful about it; for that same reason, when punished, he sees it unreasonable because he doesn’t believe that any crime deserves punishment, it is unjust and unfair and it just simply makes him feel miserable (Shmoop 1). The Misfit might know he did something wrong, but he doesn’t remember what it was, or better yet, he just doesn’t want to remember.This leads us to believe that he simply is a psychopath who enjoys killing because it is the only thing in his life that gives him any pleasure (Shmoop 1). He certainly doesn't seem to accept what he was accused off and feel as if his actions didn’t deserved the punishment he received, â€Å"I never was a bad boy that I remember of, but somewhere along the line I done something wrong and got sent to the penitentiary.I was buried alive† (O’Connor 401). O’Connor uses the Misfit as a character beyond redemption. We all know he was not a good person; it is seen by how he rationalizes his actions, even the murder of innocent children. As human beings we are the only ones responsible for our choices and actions and have free will to do anything we desire. We are capable of doing good, but we are just as capable of doing evil.

A post war poem, ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est’ snatches at the opportunity to put an abrupt end to political problems worldwide

A post war poem, ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est' snatches at the opportunity to put an abrupt end to political problems worldwide, and to avoid any sort of future World Wars. Poet Wilfred Owen shapes this poem around war and its consequences; this is a poem of deep, twisted, emotive imagery portrayed through intelligent poetic devices. The opening stanza draws the reader into the proverbial trench, ‘Bent double, like old beggars under sacks' – an example of accessible imagery, used through a simile. The following lines continue to create the atmosphere of war: ‘Coughing like hags, we cursed through the sludge', an unpleasant yet easily understandable occurrence. ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est' practically marches the reader to war by emphasising soldiers' hardships at war; travelling to a ‘distant rest', and ‘men march asleep', an effective metaphoric phrase, elaborated upon straight after, Owen states soldiers would be ‘drunk with fatigue', and even after they'd ‘lost their boots', they would ‘limp on, blood-shod, all blind' on this seemingly eternal and insignificant march. Wilfred Owen will have captivated any reader by now to see the poem through to it's end. This poem is of a standard much higher than Owen's other work, as well as many of its time. ‘An ecstasy of fumbling', ‘misty panes and think green light' and ‘a green sea' are all first-rate adjectival phrases portraying further visions of war. ‘And floundering like a man in fire or lime' paints a very descriptive and hideously detailed picture. This stanza's flow is excellent and the rhyme scheme and iambic pentameter really keeping a solid rhythm going. In a small break-off from the second stanza, we have stanza three, just two lines, acting as an anti climax, the predecessor to the final twelve line stanza; this couple of lines links with the previous stanza via its rhyme scheme, it ends with the emotive, meaningful line ‘He plunges at me, guttering, choking drowning' – repetition of ‘drowning' through rhyme, emphasis used to a great effect. This draws us into the ultimate chapter of ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est'. Stanza four is littered with intelligent and effective poetic devices in the way of similes and existential imagery. For instance ‘Like a devil's sick of sin', ‘obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud', two lines, and three similes manage to highlight the repulsive nature of war. Yet more simple yet informative adjectives and verbs paint pictures in the readers mind – ‘Watch the white eyes writhing in his face', sickening yet beautiful. This is followed by ‘If you could see †¦ with such high zest' – a five line cut from the stanza illuminates the poem with brilliance. ‘The blood coming from the froth-corrupted lungs', ‘obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud' and ‘vile, incurable sores' are three examples of emotive, negatively charged poetry. The poem then draws into its infamous close: ‘Dulce et decorum est †¦ Pro patria mori' – Latin, simply translated to â€Å"It's sweet and fitting to die for your country†. This is after playing down war for four convincing and vibrant stanzas. He dubs the saying an ‘old lie', a bold yet shockingly debatable declaration. This ending rounds off the poem impeccably; ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est' rhymes in alternating couplets and uses iambic pentameter in the right places, it's a near-perfect formula not to be missed out on. The poem begins with an introduction to trench warfare and goes on stating the hardships of war and life as a soldier followed by a poetic patch of high-quality description, it proceeds to finish drowning you in a sea of soldiers' sorrow. In a moment of bias, I have to input my own opinion on this piece; it is one of the more interesting pieces of poetry, not too bogged-down, the rhythm throughout the second stanza in particular is excellent. The poetic devices incorporated are done so as effectively as I've ever read, all the similes and metaphors already mentioned in this appreciation fully validate my statement. At the same time the poem doesn't overdo use of imagery and intelligent language, to the point it is so abstract it makes difficult, complicated reading. ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est' provides good balance, making it accessible and easy to relate to. Overall it's an impeccable, negatively charged protest against war, which leaves the timeless question: â€Å"Dulce et decorum est, pro patria mori† – Well?

Econ case study Essay

1) Why is economics central to an understanding of the problems of development? It is because that the development of a country depends on economic factors. Economics helps you to interpret how a country is developing, economic policies of a country that determine whether or not it develops and how fast it develops if it performs. In addition, economics helps you to understand how wealth and finance are distributed, and the causes and effects of borrowing and lending. Problems of development are like not having enough money, economics teaches us about problems in development and so we can better interpret these problems primarily by looking at the economic components that define the troubles. Furthermore, economics is a social science and is concerned with people and economic development problems also stemming from people so these fields are related and understanding the one helps you better understand the other because you can build up a bigger picture. 5) Why is an understanding of development crucial to policy formulation in developing nations? Do you think it is possible for a nation to agree on a rough definition of development and orient its strategies accordingly? It is important because, like I answered on question number one, development of a country rely on the economic policies of a country which decide the country is developing or not, and how fast it develops. Depends on what policy formulation the country select, it may result different ending. In my opinion, currently nations cannot agree on a rough definition of development because most of them have different approaches, measurements and standards. However, I believe in the future there might be a working definition that the nations can agree on and orient its strategies. Like the textbook  mentions there are three basic components that help understand the meaning of development which are sustenance, self-esteem and freedom. 6. Why is a strictly economic definition of development inadequate? What do you understand economic development to mean? Can you give hypothetical or real examples of situations in which a country may be developing economically but still be underdeveloped? The Strictly economic definition of development was inadequate due to not taking into account the factors other the financial or economical. I considered that economic development meant financial growth or the increment in yield of goods. An example of a country that is developed economically, but still underdeveloped would have to be India, which I selected for the group presentations, because it is producing a lot of goods and services, but many of its citizens are living in poverty and there’s still a high inequality between genders. 7. How does the concept of â€Å"capabilities to function† help us gain insight into development goals and achievements? Is money enough? Why or why not? The capacities to function help us clear insight into development goals and achievements by letting us determine how much freedom of choice a person experiences in their country which makes it a full measurement of growth. Money is not enough to gain insight of development goals and achievements because money does not help people from living long, and it does not guarantee people’s happiness. 8. What forces may be at work in giving the Millennium Development Goals such a high profile in international economic relations? In my opinion, money forces work in giving the Millennium Development Goals. If a country get high incentive of money, they can borrow money easier than the other country who does not perform well on money. 2. Brazil has special interest because its growth performance from the 1960s  through the 1980s was the best in Latin America, with at least some parallels with East Asian policy and performance (Todaro & Smith, P.28). Moreover, other indicators of development in Brazil lagged, eventually undermining growth prospects. After the civil war and gaining benefits from the other Central American countries, it seems that Brazil should have been in a much better position to fight extreme poverty trap and social equity. Rather, it has continued to insure an extremely high percentage of its population in extreme poverty in an upper middle income country, and remains one the countries with the highest degrees of inequality in the world. 3. Chapter 2 1) According to the textbook, the problems that most developing countries have in common are poverty, high levels of unemployment and underemployment, low levels of agricultural productivity and sizable imbalances between urban and rural levels of living and economic opportunities (Todaro & Smith, P. 92). The most significant problem is serious poverty because every person should at least have the most basic needs such as home, basic clothes and food. 2) According to the textbook, low levels of living is the amount of money on average a person makes in a country. (Todaro & Smith, P. 29). In my opinion, low levels of living can exist simultaneously with high levels of per capita income because there might be a few that are earning a lot with the majority of the population earning less. For instance, on 1980’s Portsmouth, Ohio and Brazil, which is an upper medium income country with nice levels of per capita with a bulk of its citizens living in poverty. 4) In my opinion, among health, labor productivity, and income levels, there are huge, and strong relationship because I think labor productivity decides the income levels, and it also affects people’s health. For instant, people can observe that people’s health is low when labor productivity is low and it comes with low productivity the income levels are lower than the normal  countries. 5) â€Å"Dominance, dependence, and vulnerability† in their relations with rich nations is that many developing countries do not have any means of their own that they come to depend on the rich nations handouts and pretty much become vulnerable and dominated. In other words, rich nations can kind of force the developing countries to do what they want, and make them poor if they refuse. For example, rich countries are forcing or suggesting Iran and North Korea to give up nuclear weapons by interrupting their economy. Moreover, a developing country is so poor that it cannot invest and that is where the rich countries come and provide financial aid to make that poor nation depend on rich countries. 6) Developed countries produce large quantities of goods, services, and in general do a lot of manufacturing. Countries such as these use science to improve technology and generally have good health care and education for their people. Compared to developed nations, developing countries practice subsistence agriculture and often suffer a miserable income, clothing, and housing. Only few people in developing countries receive proper health care or education. In addition, and life expectancy is relatively short. Most developing countries also lack the resources needed for economic growth. Also, developing countries’ primary sector of economic is the major contributor to the GDP of the country. Low GDP per capita is there. Usually exports agricultural goods or natural resources and imports value added goods from developed countries. 7) The composition of the Index reflects dissatisfaction with income as a measure of well-being: income is not the only argument in a person’s utility function. The Human Development Index is an attempt to develop a better measure of well-being. If I design the new HDI, I want to set up the standard of get information from people. Quality and trustworthiness of those data is disputable, especially when we get the information from UN non-democratic members. It is because I think it might much better if we have a standard method to get adequate data which shows their own interest for strengthening their credibility and legitimacy. 12) According to Jan Kees van Donge, he states that in Southeast Asia, the transition to sustained growth has consistently been associated with policies aimed at macroeconomic stabilization; improving life in the rural sector, increasing agricultural productivity, and ensuring an ample supply of food. In contrast, sub-Saharan Africa initiatives in these directions have in some instances been present, but the concurrent pursuit of all three policy objectives has not. Other factors that appear to be of somewhat lesser importance, but that nevertheless deserve further study are: industrialization on the basis of foreign direct investment; systems of politics and governance; and cultural patterns as manifest in policy choices. (â€Å"Tracking Development in Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa: the primacy of policy†, par.3) 13) According to the textbook, colonial legacy is described as the colonies and institutions that were created and controlled by European and other foreign powers. These colonies and institutions that were created in the developing countries had a negative effect on the development of those countries that still continues today (Todaro & Smith, P. 69). The advantage of colonial legacy is that arrangement might be exists. A disadvantage would be that in many cases, these countries or institutions will not rich by its own country’s ability. 14) According to the textbook, five characteristics of the developing world are physical and human resource endowments, per capita incomes, climate, population, and historical role of migration. It says that developed countries are more natural resources when the country started to grow were as most developing countries usually did not have a lot of natural resources (Todaro & Smith, p.71). Per capita incomes are a lot higher in developing nations than in growing nations. The growth rates of populations in developing rural areas are usually higher compared to that of a developed nation. 15) The differences between the traditional HDI compare to NHDI, HDI uses arithmetic mean. In contrast, NHDI uses geometric mean. HDI uses GDP and the  NHDI replaces that with GNI. Traditional HDI added the three components and divided by three. However, NHDI takes the cube root of the product of the three component indexes. In my opinion, NHDI is better than HDI because it gives us a realistic average and the traditional HDI gives us an arithmetic average which is not realistic. 4. a. R1=-21%, R2=42%, R3=59%, R4=9, R5=0.87% = 14.42% b. R1=-40%, R2=56%, R3=-90%, R4=0 =-44.69% c. R1=-20%, R2=78.12%, R3=91.34% =39.7% 5. Chapter 3 (page 136-137): Questions for Discussion 1-6 1) The structural change model of Chenery focus on structural changes in the stages of the process of economic change, industrial and institutional structures of emerging economies. Chenery research conducted on the transformation of production structure shows that the increased role of the industrial sector in the economy in line with the increase in income per capita is happening in a country closely linked with the accumulation of capital and improving human resources (human capital). The neo-Marxist is an indirect outgrowth of Marxist thinking. The main idea is that a disproportionate relationship between the central state which consists of the developed and the periphery is composed of the developing world. The false-paradigm model is the model that advice or suggestions may mean well but often do not have enough information about the country to be assisted, especially developing countries. For the developing nations, I think the  best explanation is related to the situation in most developing countries is the neocolonial dependence model (neo-Marxist). This model explains that economic development on developing countries depend on developed countries, especially in direct investment in the mining sector and import of goods produced. 2) Dual societies means that rich nations and poor nations at world level are exist; and a few rich complemented with a majority of poor people in the developing countries. Thus, dualism is a concept which represents the existence. I think it does not portray the development picture in developing country because it seems like a concept that divide the world into only two part. Development or developing countries. 3)  According to the text book, it says that different sets of conditions, of which some are â€Å"superior† and others â€Å"inferior,† can coexist in a given space (Todaro & Smith, p.125). Also, the interrelations between the superior and inferior elements are such that the existence of the superior elements does little or nothing to pull up the inferior element, let alone â€Å"trickle down† to it. These are reason why it is a valid conceptualization. 4)  According to text book, neoclassical economic theories designed to accelerate the growth of GDP as the principal index of development (Todaro & Smith, p.125). it is valid policy because it is all connected to the False-Paradigm Model and a policy of autarky. 5) I do not think that there is a single unified theory that explain the one country. Including the economic theory, a situation should be explained by the several theories arising from various branches. Also, we can observe that there are many factors which are put into the section of output or input. 6) Even though the free-market theory and the dependence theory indicates the opposite meaning of explaining the market, in my opinion, neoclassical, free-market theory is not necessarily incompatible with dependence theory. In case of the rich countries or the country, which is developed country yet it was developing countries at past, both free-market and dependence theory is needed to explain their economic status. 6. Chapter 4 (page 195-196): Questions for Discussion 1-10 1) Actions can be taken by one agent reinforces incentives for others to take similar actions. With Multiple Equilibria graph, there are pressure which hit equilibrium point. Also, one equilibrium to other points there are demand shock, supply shock and government interruption which indicates the metaphor of economic problems. For example, on our daily life basis we can observe the invisible hand in the market which means that government makes decision for economy and affect our life. 2) According to the PowerPoint, indivisibilities in amounts of investment imply a region of increasing returns to scale, as in the fixed costs of the big push model. Once again, increasing returns plays a key role in generating multiple equilibria. This is related to how the investment works with big push model. In case of O-ring model, investment is one of the outpour sector which effects the formula. It was hard to find the limitation in o ring model, but I would like to say and would like to ask why q is only between zero and one. It can be the limitation points of O-ring model? 3) I do not think that developing countries can escape all of the traps described in this chapter. Especially developing countries cannot escape from the poverty trap because poverty fuels move the poverty. It is happening in underdevelopment countries. Therefore, if a country is in poverty trap and try to escape, they should have positive information externality from development countries. In case of development countries, it is still hard to escape the poverty trap but it is movable than the developing countries. 4) High levels of inequality lead to lower rates of growth and development because it makes rich countries more rich and poor countries poorer. If there is a high level of inequality on growth and development rate, it supports the poverty trap, which is the most difficult thing to get out of the trap, to develop. 5) In case of central planned market, such as public ownership of resource and governing board that makes decision for economy. If government interrupt the free market and give pressure to equilibrium point, it makes new prices from government. Also, it leads to a lack of private investment. Finally, the market might have a failure results. 6) In my opinion, low level of trust of people outside one’s extended family is related to information externality. It always better to accept positive information. Also, it is connected with the Haussmann-Rodrick-Velasco Growth Diagnostic Decision Tree theory. In case of low levels of private investment and entrepreneurship, it may causes low return to economic activity and high cost of finances which cause low social returns and market failure. 7) O-ring production function is complementarity between workers’ skills. Therefore, we can find O-ring production on our daily life where the place indeed high technology or the worker’s skills. For example, if the producer of IPhone 6 has more significant skills, the price may different. 8) I think the two approaches cannot be used together to inform each other. If I assume that logically cohesive model with strong assumptions is the big push model, the other theories, such as O-ring model can supports the limit of the big push. However, in my opinion, the two approaches cannot be used together to inform the same situation at the same time. Because there might be some overlap sections and limitations between two theories. 9) As a reader of chapter 4, The Big Push model described in this chapter is useful in shedding additional light on the nature of problems considered. It shows market failures lead to a need for public policy intervention. Moreover, it is more efficient for economy because it assumes that perfect  competition with traditional firms operating, limit pricing, monopolist with a modern firm operating. If there is an intertemporal, urbanization, infrastructure and training effects, a big push may necessary. 10) According to my research, Egyptian reforms launched in 2004 appear to have focused well on the most critical constraints-reducing red tape and tax rates, and improving access to foreign exchange-thereby getting a strong growth response out of a limited set of reforms. However, inefficient bureaucracy remains an important obstacle to higher growth and reforms in this area should continue to have high payoffs. Ongoing reforms are also addressing constraints that are likely to become binding soon (or have become so already), such as inefficient financial intermediation and high public debt. Improvements in education may rapidly become a critical factor for sustaining higher growth ( Enders, Klaus-Stefan, sec.1).